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Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia (B0D160A) / Private Equity SolutionsExplore the updated online encyclopedia from Encyclopaedia Britannica with hundreds of thousands of articles, biographies, videos and photos along with access to the Britannica Student Encyclopedia, Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, and Merriam-Webster's Dictionary & Thesaurus.community ecology: Ecological succession). Both
plant and animal ecology developed separately until American
biologists emphasized the interrelation of both plant and animal
communities as a biotic whole.
Photograph:Konrad Lorenz. Konrad Lorenz.
Hermann Kacher During the same period, interest in
population dynamics developed. The study of
population dynamics received special impetus in the early 19th
century, after the English economist Thomas
Malthus called attention to the conflict between expanding
populations and the capability of Earth to supply food. In the
1920s the American zoologist Raymond Pearl, the American chemist
and statistician Alfred J. Lotka, and the Italian mathematician
Vito Volterra developed mathematical foundations
for the study of populations, and these studies led to experiments
on the interaction of predators and prey, competitive relationships
between species, and the regulation of populations. Investigations
of the influence of behaviour on populations were stimulated by the
recognition in 1920 of territoriality in nesting birds. Concepts of
instinctive and aggressive behaviour were developed by the Austrian
zoologist Konrad Lorenz and the Dutch-born British
zoologist Nikolaas Tinbergen, and the role of
social behaviour in the regulation of populations was explored by
the British zoologist Vero Wynne-Edwards. (See
population ecology.)
While some ecologists were studying the dynamics of communities and
populations, others were concerned with energy budgets. In 1920
August Thienemann, a German freshwater biologist, introduced the
concept of trophic, or feeding, levels (see trophic
level), by which the energy of food is transferred through
a series of organisms, from green plants (the producers) up to
several levels of animals (the consumers). An English animal
ecologist, Charles Elton (1927), further developed
this approach with the concept of ecological
niches and pyramids of numbers. In the 1930s,
American freshwater biologists Edward Birge and Chancey Juday, in
measuring the energy budgets of lakes, developed the idea of
primary productivity, the rate at which food
energy is generated, or fixed, by photosynthesis.
In 1942 Raymond L. Lindeman of the United States developed the
trophic-dynamic concept of ecology, which details the flow of
energy through the ecosystem. Quantified field studies of
energy flow through ecosystems were further
developed by the brothers Eugene Odum and Howard Odum of the United
States; similar early work on the cycling of
nutrients was done by J.D. Ovington of England and
Australia. (See community ecology: Trophic pyramids
and the flow of energy; biosphere: The flow of
energy and nutrient cycling.)
The study of both energy flow and nutrient cycling was stimulated
by the development of new materials and
techniques radioisotope tracers, microcalorimetry, computer
science, and applied mathematics that enabled ecologists to
label, track, and measure the movement of particular nutrients and
energy through ecosystems. These modern methods (see below
Methods in ecology) encouraged a new stage in the
development of ecology systems ecology, which is concerned
with the structure and function of ecosystems.
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Long before the arrival of Christopher Columbus and before the incursions of the Spanish explorers and conquistadores in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Americas were home for thousands of years to a variety of civilizations and empires. As the understanding of agriculture improved and larger populations could be supported, small settlements grew into vast urban centres ruled by an aristocracy that was looked to among other things for propitiation of the gods. These civilizations waxed and waned (producing calendars and a writing system as well as huge building complexes) according to a natural order until the Spanish conquest. The resultant colonization wrought many changes, notably an overlay of the Spanish language, now the official language of most countries lying south of the United States. But less obviously, it brought cross-fertilization, a unique blending of local cultures with that of remote Spain and later of Africa as well, a melding that resulted in a distinctively Latin American style that was apparent in everything from art, dance, music, and literature to leadership. capital casebook equity We invite you to explore the people, places, events, and traditions that have shaped and continue to shape the vibrant Hispanic culture that thrives today in South, Central, and North America: people such as the gifted writer and Nobelist Octavio Paz, the talented dancer and choreographer Alicia Alonso, the celebrated liberator Sim n Bol var, the notorious dictator Augusto Pinochet, and the brilliant business leader Roberto Crispulo Goizueta; the various countries of Latin America; historical events such as the Mexican War (1846 48) and the Battle of Ayacucho (1824); and cultural celebrations such as Cinco de Mayo and the Day of the Dead. private investment in public The Brezhnev era (1964 82) The Gorbachev era: perestroika and glasnost Collapse of the Soviet Union Post-Soviet Russia The Yeltsin presidency (1991 99) Economic reforms Political and social changes Ethnic relations and Russia's near-abroad Foreign affairs Rewriting history The Putin presidency Separatism The oligarchs Political and economic reforms Additional Reading Land People General works From the beginnings to 1700 The 18th century Russia from 1801 to 1904 Russia from 1905 to 1917 Russia Land Encyclop dia Britannica Article Page 144 of 155 Print Page Print Article E-mail Article Cite ArticleViridian, the holding company for Northern Ireland's electricity, is in talks over a .62billion bid by Bahraini private equity firm Arcapita Bank. Read more
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